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| China’s
and India’s Environmental Policy
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Nowadays we live in the ear of globalization and modernization
and it goes without saying that these processes have had a
great impact on such countries as China and India. These countries
have had changes in social, political and cultural spheres.
The main aim of every country is to get profit and India and
Chinese policies have new directions taking into account this
principle. The main changes in these countries are connected
with industrialisation, globalization, urbanization and getting
to the world market. Nowadays both countries aim all their
effort to have the traditional market economy and to be successful
on the world market. One of the steps in this direction was
the attempt to divide policy and economy and t was rather
successful. As war as we now modernization can bring profit
but at the same time there negative aspects of this phenomenon.
One of the most important among them are the environmental
one, the decrease of quality of life, destruction of agricultural
sector and some others.
India is a developing country and it faces a number of environmental
problems. Environment problems make the weak point of its
governmental policy. It is obvious that the government is
able to incorporate only a little number of market-based economic
instruments in environmental planning. Environmental degradation
becomes serious problem in India and so this problem is becoming
of current importance in this country, as well as all over
the world. The rapidly growing population has a great impact
on the country’s environment. This factor together with
industrialization affects Indian infrastructure and natural
resources. Urbanization puts obstacles in the way of the rural
development of the country and leads to serious air pollution.
Among the environmental problems in India are the following:
sanitation, air and water pollution, threat to biological
diversity, waste disposal, deforestation, soil erosion, degradation
of resources and some others. “Increasing deforestation,
rapid industrialization and urbanization, increased transportation
and input-intensive agriculture are some of the major causes
of environmental problems being faced by the country.”
(Shukla, p. 241) Poverty is another negative factor for such
heavily populated country where the resources are limited.
Taking into account domestic environmental problems, India
must be aware of global ones, such as global warming and the
appearance of ozone holes as a result of this process. India
must become an active participant in the problem of stopping
the greenhouse effect and controlling some of its gases, such
as carbon dioxide and others. India is just moving in this
direction: it is a signatory to the UNFCC (United Nations
Framework Convention of Climate Change).
The economic reforms in China had a complex and contradictory
effect.
Agricultural stagnation, low industry rates and low living
standards made Chinese political leaders look for the means
to improve the situation. The ideology ceased to be that mechanism,
which helped to direct the economy of the country and economic
reforms became the way for improvement. In general post-Mao
economic reforms were characterized by decolonization of agriculture
and opening country market to foreign investors and the world
trade. Reforms were firstly tried in rural areas as these
areas brought more than half of the budget income. After successful
results reforms were spread to urban areas. These reforms
became a shift to the market economy. So called “contract
system” cancelled obligatory work for state and let
citizens use the results of their work. So called open policy,
which made some areas of China “places with preferential
conditions for foreign investment and bases for the development
of exports" created new opportunities for economic development
of the country (Buxton, P. 99). Agriculture played a very
important role in eradication of poverty. “By international
standards, China’s social indicators as reflected in
close to universal access to primary education, low infant
mortality and high life expectancy have been outliers, in
view of China’s low initial per capita income”
(Hsieh, 195). The first actions that were taken about agriculture
were the privatization of farming, intensification of industry
and liberalization of markets for many goods.
The process of transition to urbanization took the US, for
example, 47 years while China managed to double its income
twice just in 10 years (1978-1996). “The rise of China
as an economic power is one of the great stories of the latter
half of the 20th century. Twenty-five years of reform have
produced staggering results: hundreds of millions of Chinese
have been lifted out of poverty, China’s economy continues
to grow at a rate of 8-12% annually, and the country currently
ranks as the fourth largest economy and third largest exporting
nation in the world, after the United States and Germany”
(Buxton, P. 169).
China’s economy is a mixture of socialist planned economy
and socialist market economy. Such progress in agricultural
industry could be achieved just due to the combination of
renewable and nonrenewable resources. The renewable resources
in China are represented by the next ones: involving in foreign
economic relations, suppressing of consumption, choosing quantity
instead of quality.
The usage of nonrenewable resources can be easily explained
by the long-lived China’s history and traditions and,
as a result specific ways of agricultural industry’s
development take place in China. The agriculture is mostly
based on numerous hard-working population that guarantees
constant progress. Quantity of the work is achieved by drawing
on ancestors’ experience. State still controls the economy
practically at all levels and at the macroeconomic in particular.
China continues to use the same natural resources that have
been used for centuries. All these resources are nonrenewable
ones and in my opinion they dominate in China’s agriculture,
new achievements just simplify the activity but in general
the technology of agricultural industry hasn’t changed
greatly. We can say that there is extensive commercial agriculture
in China because extensive approach is still suitable in agriculture.
Such a rapid economical growth has brought a lot of damage
to the environment. Environmental degradation and pollution,
which lasted through the centuries and quick temps of industrialization
have finally resulted in highest rates of water and air pollution
in the world. This consequently leads to other complications
including resource challenges. Environmental practices of
China became an object of concern of not only the citizens
of the country but also of the world community. Nowadays it
became evident that China has made a big contribution to the
major environmental challenges of the modern world, such as
climate change, marine pollution and illegal timber trade.
There are several key problems China faces concerning the
environment. These challenges are: air pollution, land degradation
and water pollution. More than half of city area of China
has polluted air. Pan Yue, Vice-Minister of China’s
State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) states
that four of the five most polluted cities of the world are
situated in China. Acid rains also cause serious threat to
environment. These rains fall on more than quarter of Chinese
territory. These rains have negative impact on both –
human health and environment, including agricultural crops.
There are several reasons of air pollution in China but the
main one is relying on coal as the main source of energy.
In addition, quick urbanization led to the increase of the
number of cars, which also contribute to the air pollution.
Land degradation is also a serious problem for contemporary
China. Deforestation and overcultivation have caused major
changes in the landscape of the country. These changes now
result in biodiversity loss, soil erosion and climate changes.
“Overall, almost 40% of China’s land is affected
by soil erosion. The world’s highest water erosion rates
occur in China in the Loess Plateau, where 1.6 billion tons
of topsoil is washed into the Yellow River on an annual basis“
(Shangguan,p.43). One quarter of the country is now turned
to desert and this process continues. Water pollution is the
most serious problem for modern China. About 7 % of world
water resources are situated in China, while about 20 % of
world population live there. These means that people in China
feel need in water and this tendency is likely to grow in
the future. The lack of water resources is complicated by
the problem of water pollution. A survey made in 44 Chinese
cities has shown that 42 of them are affected by the water
pollution (Shangguan, p. 43). About three-quarters of water,
which runs in urban areas, is polluted and not suitable for
drinking. Even the water used for drinking is often of very
low quality. Agricultural runoff and wastewater from rural
industries have caused severe damage in several biggest Chinese
lakes.
Being aware of environmental problems India is preparing its
own strategy that would help to cope with the needs of the
global climate changes. Current environmental regulations,
for example the Environmental Act of 1986 give the Central
Pollution Control Board a possibility to control air and water
pollution and solid waste. Despite this fact the environmental
situation in India is rather difficult. “Policies that
help in reducing environment degradation while at the same
time increasing growth in the critical sectors of the economy
are strongly needed” (Planning Commission, 67).
Indian environmental policy has a long history. In the year
1927 the Indian Forest Act was published. This Act was based
on the previous Acts, for example the Indian Forest Act of
1878. These both acts were aimed to regulate the transition
of forest produce, reserve the forest areas and to set up
and protect reserved forests, protected forests and village
forests. Reserved Forest presents an area of land which is
defined under section 20 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or
under the so-called reservation provisions, which are presented
in the Forest acts of the Indian Union. “It is within
power of a State Government to issue a preliminary notification
under section 4 of the Act declaring that it has been decided
to constitute such land, as specified in a Schedule with details
of its location, area and boundary description, into a Reserved
Forest” (Shukla, p.242). Protected Forest is an area
of land and the Government has property rights over it and
it is notified under the provision of the section 29 of the
Indian Forest Act. Village Forest is an area of land notified
under section 28 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927.
The Government of India is caring about the wildlife of the
country and it can be easily confirmed by the Wildlife Protection
Act of 1972. This act is only one act of environmental policy
of the Government of India in this year. This act presents
a list of protected animal and plant species and establishes
schedules of hunting. This act is applied to the whole territory
of India, with the exception of the State of Kashmir and Jammu.
The main aim of this act is to protect wild animals, birds
and plants.
All in all India’s active participation in environmental
problem solving is connected with the 1984 Bhopal disaster.
More than 3,000 people died because of the toxic poisoning
from the Carbide chemical plant. In 1986 the Environment Protection
Act was passed. Its main aim was to create MoEF (the Ministry
of Environment and Forests) and activate India’s potential.
According to this act MoEF is responsible for all environmental
laws and policies. Beginning from this time environmental
strategies are taken into account while making a project of
any plant or factory. Industrial pollution in recent 20 years
is one of the greatest environmental problem, as it endangers
citizens’ life and so one of MoEF’s main tasks
is to reduce the industrial pollution.
Such cities in India as New Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Koltaka
are among the most polluted cities in the world and their
air quality ranks are extremely high. The highest number of
deaths because of bad ecology occurs in India. Industrial
pollution in India is caused in most cases by untreated industrial
smoke and vehicular emissions. India’s government is
trying to improve the situation: “In New Delhi, emissions
limits for gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles came into
effect in 1991 and 1992, respectively, and the city has prohibited
the use of vehicle more than 15 years old.” (Rana, p.100)
Rapid urbanization and overcrowded cities in India result
in 208 per cent increase of energy consuming by the year 2001
in comparison with 1980 and these figures are frightening.
Energy usage rate in India is increasing even faster than
in China. Nevertheless, India’s energy consumption,
which makes 12.8 quads, now is below that in China, where
it is 39.67 quads.
It took some time for the Chinese government o understand
that environmental problems cause social and political problems
in the country. “The health of the Chinese people is
endangered by the country’s air and water quality: fully
400,000 people are estimated to die prematurely in China from
respiratory diseases related to air pollution, and hundreds
of millions drink water contaminated with heavy metals and
fecal matter.” (Zhao, 197) Environmental pollution and
degradation costs China an equivalent of 10% GDP every year.
Environmental problems have also become a reason of citizens’
dissatisfaction.
Talks about national priorities do not stop during the long
period in China. Urbanization and rapid industrialization
have caused serious damage to the environment, which have
naturally caused concerns of native population and environmental
organizations. Latest state policy is based on the attempts
to find a healthy balance between economical growth and environmental
protection. “Chinese conservationists, however, now
say official reluctance to release the environmental impact
studies may conceal moves to revive the dams and stifle debate
about controversial projects.” (Zhao, 201) During the
last time Chinese political leaders started paying more attention
to the problem of environmental pollution. Finally, after
years of neglecting, environmental issues have become the
subject of governmental concern. Investments to the environmental
protection have grown considerable during the last time. A
number of new policies aiming to meet the challenges of environmental
pollution have being developed during recent time. After years
of concealment Chinese leaders come to the realization that
“China’s economic, social and political welfare—and
to a large extent that of the world—over the next decade
will all be shaped by how effectively the country’s
leaders and the people integrate environmental protection
with economic development.” (Buxton, p. 123) Since environmental
situation in China affects the rest of the world many counties
develop environmental policies together with China. For example,
the United States stresses on the necessity to develop fruitful
collaboration between both countries on the field on environmental
issues.
Environmental problems, which China and India face at the
present moment are very alike. That is the reason in many
cases they choose familiar strategies in order to deal with
this problems. China and India take part in the number of
common environmental programs. Both, China and India have
joined the Asia – Pacific Partnership on Clean Development
and Climate. This Partnership consists of six Asian-Pacific
countries: China, India, Australia, Japan, the Republic of
Korea and the United States. This partnership has been designed
in order to help the countries to share experiences about
the ways to meet environmental challenges. The policy of the
partnership stresses implementing of market-worth technologies,
aiming to confront environmental challenges. Partnership countries
share information about environmental issues and research
the ways to improve technologies.
China and India have produced an impressive response to the
global climate change. The protocol, signed as a part of Kyoto
Protocol to the United Nations Framework Conversation on Climate
Change, declared that China joined Asia Pacific Partnership
on Clean Development and Climate. In this protocol China proclaimed
a number of initiatives aiming to improve energy use patterns.
China expressed initiative to use the clean development mechanism
(CDM) and carbon trading market. “According to one report,
China already accounts for 60% of the carbon credits trading
under the CDM, and successes are being touted in the Chinese
and international media.” (Buxton, p. 179) India also
takes part in CDM projects. Despite the initiative expressed
by China was impressive, these projects are still small in
number. For the present moment only 41 projects have been
registered in China. In India, where this mechanism is also
in used there are 124 of CDM projects registered. This contrast
can be explained by strong bureaucratic mechanism, which exists
in China and makes it complicated to launch any new mechanism.
In addition country authorities create obstacles to the foreign
organizations, who try to invest money into Chinese economy.
India’s government signed the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change as a non-Annex I country, which
means that it cannot be obligated to reduce the emissions
of greenhouse gases. So, “India is not a signatory to
the Kyoto Protocol that mandates specific commitments by countries
to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by an average
of 5.2% below 1990 levels by the agreed 2008-2012 time frame.
Nevertheless, India accepted (ratification was unnecessary)
the Kyoto Protocol on August 26, 2002” (Rana, p. 103).
Carbon emissions in India increased by 61 per cent just betweeen1990
and 2001. These figures are higher only in China, where they
make 111 per cent.
Conclusion
China and India are two countries with similar economic and
environmental problems. Increasing the temps of economic development
governments of these countries often do not take into account
the impact of urbanization, globalization and usage of new
technologies on the ecology. The problem of increasing population
and a growing number of mega-cities is especially actual for
China and it is obvious that these tendencies result in environment.
On the one hand such situation can endanger people’s
life but on the other hand sustainable development of economy
can help to make environmental improvements. It is obvious
that urban environmental problems are of current importance
in China and India.
India and China face environmental challenges and so their
main aim is to find balance between the economic development
and ecological safety of the country. India is more successful
in it, the India government is caring about the environmental
from the very beginning of the 20th century. We can name such
acts as Indian Forest Act (1927) and Wildlife Protection Act
(1972) in support of this fact. Beginning from the year 1986
India has become an active participator in solving of global
environmental problems and singed a number of acts which deal
with this problem. As far as we know environmental problems
in China are closely connected with coal consuming, so the
main aim of the Chinese government is to change the situation.
The solution of the coal problem is of current importance
for the government. Among all the fossil fuels coal is one
of the most carbon-intense and it is necessary to reduce the
usage of coal. The government is now working on the inventions
of projects which can do it with the help of renewable energy
and efficient-energy technologies and it can be one of steps
towards the solution of the greenhouse effect problem. It
is necessary to invest in these technologies and so they will
be able to transform coal into a clean-burning gas and so
reduce the pollution from the one of dirtiest fuels.
China and India have signed up a number of acts together because
only cooperate forces can solve global environmental crises,
especially taking into account the fact that these two countries
contribute greatly to world air and water pollution. Both,
China and India are the active members the Asia – Pacific
Partnership on Clean Development and Climate. Together it
is possible to find alternative ways to save energy, to use
coal in a proper way and to reduce carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
The current results achieved by India and China in this sphere
are the bright example of this fact.
References
1. Shukla, P.R., The Modeling of Policy Options for Greenhouse
Gas Mitigation in India. AMBIO, Vol. XXV, No. 4, June, pp.
240-248, 1996.
2. Rana, A. & Shukla, P.R., Macroeconomic Models for Long-term
Energy and Planning Commission, Urban Solid Waste Management
in India. Report of High Power Committee. Government of India,
1995.
3.Heilig, G.K.: ChinaFood. Can China Feed Itself? IIASA, Laxenburg,
1999.
4. Zhao, Songqiao. Geography of China: Environment, Resources,
Population, and Development. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
1994.
5. Buxton, Leonard H. China: The Land and the People. New
York: Gallery Books, W.H. Smith, Pub., 1988.
6. Heilig, G.K. / Reidinger, Richard / Yang, Xiaoliu / Yan,
Jingsong / Hu, Ying (2000): Water eco-development strategies
in China. In: Wang, Rusong / Ren, Hongzun / Ouyang, Zhiyun
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(2001): Water management and grain production in dryland farming
areas in China. In: International Journal of Sustainable Development
and World Ecology, Vol. 8, 41-45
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In: The China Quarterly, Vol. 177, 21-41
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