 |
| Psychological
and biological theories of crime in criminology
|
 |
1. Introduction
2. Peculiarities of criminology
3. Biological theories in criminology
4. Psychological theories in criminology
5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
Criminology is not an old science; nevertheless it is possible
to say that the steps of its creation started long before
its official definition as a science. The necessity of this
science is especially high nowadays when, the level of crime
has risen immensely in every corner of the planet. The attempt
to explain the human behavior has already become a priority
for many scientists all over the world. The rich socio-historical
experience of the humanity in the past gives an additional
opportunity for adequate understanding of modern criminology
and the problems solved by the given branch of knowledge.
Criminology had several factors that especially influenced
its development. These factors provide a lot of back up information
for a better understanding of criminology and its possibilities.
2. Peculiarities of criminology
Criminology is a socially-legal interdisciplinary science
and an integral part of legislation. As it has been already
mentioned, the beginning of the existence of criminology as
a separate science started in the middle of the XIX century.
Its start is strongly associated with the works of a famous
criminologist Cesar Lombroso. Criminology as a science has
a list of primary problems that it is to solve. The first
one to mention is the analytical problem which lies in the
detailed researched of the phenomenon of criminality, its
general condition and the categorization of all the existing
criminal manifestations. So therefore criminology provides
a correct “picture” of the present criminal situation
in any given geographical location. Other problems include
the prognosis of the potential criminal situation, the prevention
of criminality and the determination of the causes and the
consequences of crime. One of the most important criminological
issues of the new era is the designation of the crime determinants.
So basically criminology has four main priorities to study:
criminality, the personality of criminals, the reasons and
the conditions under which criminality takes place and the
possible methods of prevention. There have been many attempts
to understand the true causes of crime. These attempts are
especially revealed through the existing theories in criminology.
Nevertheless, the biological and the psychological theories
are the ones most spread and their contradiction constantly
results in numerous arguments between the supporters of both
of the theories. In order to make any concrete conclusions
on any of these theories it is necessary to analyze them and
their contribution in criminology.
3. Biological theories in criminology
The biological theories primarily study the physical constitution
and endocrinology. They are a bright example of the theories
that has not really got any practical support. The misunderstanding
of these theories has caused a stereotype that if a person
is a criminal then he was born as a criminal and any steps
taken in order to change or to influence them are useless.
Biological theories are only a part and one the interpretation
of criminality but not the only. In the present time there
is no assertive evidence of the fact, that the physical constitution
and other biological factors cause criminality.
Nevertheless, these theories have a right to exist and there
was a lot of important information that was used in terms
of the development of criminology as a science.
The most vivid example of the biological determinism is the
theory of Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso based his theory on the
assumption that criminals have certain physiognomic features
or abnormalities. Lombroso wanted to be able to detect future
criminals in order to isolate them from the society. This
gave criminology a strong push to create new methods of dealing
with criminals and prevent crimes. Lombroso implied that prisoners
had common facial characteristics. If to exaggerate criminals
in Lombroso’s theory can be identified through the shape
of their skulls, asymmetry of the face and head, large cheekbones,
ears and lips, long arms and a twisted nose. Lombroso’s
theory is the oldest one and it can without a doubt be called
the main background data for the whole process of the development
of criminology. Lombroso stated that men are more inclined
to commit crimes due to the conservatism and the narrow-mindedness
of their interests. According to Lombroso women have less
social contacts and this is what predetermines their conservatism.
This theory of female deviance seems to be very discriminating
and not a present-day issue. The evaluation of a person as
a “born criminal” basing on his facial features
is at least not ethical and rather primitive. Lombroso considered
this “born criminals” to be the “atavisms”
of the society.
All the biological theories are based on the notion that biological
markers foreordain criminal behavior. The core of all these
theories is that genetic factors or any abnormalities which
are inherited or acquired throughout the life, predispose
individuals to the criminal behavior. Lombroso’s theory
gave life to probably almost every single biological theory
that appeared afterward.
Among the biological theories the XYY syndrome occupies a
special place, as it analyzes why males are more often subjects
to become criminals due to the presence if an extra Y chromosome.
As this syndrome is in the first place associated with the
low IQ-level of such males which seems to be a much better
explanation. IQ shortage causes the inability to adjust in
the contemporary social world that requires constant activity
and flexibility. People facing these difficulties are left
with no other choice that to turn to criminality. It all starts
with low performance at school which results in the awareness
of the “irretrievable dissimilitude” from others
which later on results in deviance. Also such diseases as
Organic Brain Syndrome, ADD or hormonal changes according
to the biological theories play a very important role in the
inclination to any criminal activities.
Another famous biological theory is the theory of William
Sheldon. He based his research and inferences on Kretschmer's
constitutional personality. For instance, Sheldon pointed
out three main body types which are to explain the potential
bent to criminal activity: endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph.
Endomorph is a type hat is fat and therefore is primarily
concerned with consumption. Mesomorph is defined through skinny
intelligent introverts and ectomorph characterizes large dynamic
people. Sheldon claimed that disproportionately mesomorphic
people are more often subjects to criminal behavior than any
other body type. In spite of the variety of biological theories
nowadays it is clear that there is no possibility to consider
that any person can be a “born criminal”, because
it is very hard to underestimate the social factors and all
the psychological issues connected with them. Lombroso’s
theory was a good start for criminology but this point of
view needed to transform into something new and not one-sided.
4. Psychological theories in criminology
The main idea of the psychological theories is that potential
criminal behavior is the result of stable psychological trait
of a person. These personality characteristics are he ones
to push people towards committing crimes and demonstrating
deviant behavior. The psychological theories emphasize the
meaning of extraversion, neuroticism, psychotisism and may
others of the conduct of a man. According to the psychological
theories the disposition to crime is the result of inadequate
socialization. They consider the social factor to be one of
the most important ones in terms of inclination to deviance.
Among the numerous psychological theories it is important
to point out Sigmund Freud’s and Erik Erikson’s
psychodynamic theories, Skinner’s operant conditioning,
Albert Bandura’s social-learning theory and the theory
of moral development based on Kohlberg’s and Piaget’s
stages of development.
Freud touched the problem of possible personality imbalance
based on the functioning of Id, Ego and Superego resulting
in the repression which can later proceed into criminal behavior.
Erikson made an emphasis on the child development. He was
particularly solicitous about the problem of identity diffusion
which resulted in excessively self-conscious people who are
overly concerned with sexuality. Erikson pointed out the problem
of unfulfilled expectations which form a negative identity.
In its turn this negative identity when possessed by a person
make him want to show it out and he most common way to do
it is to rebel against everything. The rebel against social
norms is a bright example of how negative identity can result
in criminal behavior. This theory performs a perfect base
of how deviance can be stopped at early age.
The next major theory to mention is Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory which is founded on the standard scheme
of stimulus > reaction. According to Skinner the reward-based
actions can form the desired behavior of a person and therefore
also provide important information in terms of the prevention
of criminality.
Bandura in his psychological social learning or also known
as the social learning theory states: “Learning would
be exceedingly laborious…if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to
do… from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action” [Bandura,
22]. Bandura claimed that modeling plays the most important
role in the behavior formation.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is based on the
thoughts revealed in the works of Jean Piaget. According to
Kohlberg every individual passed six stages throughout his
development as a personality. Each of the stages belongs to
a definite level, so Kohlberg marked out three levels: pre-conventional
level, conventional level and the post-conventional level.
Each of the three levels has is own social orientation. The
diapason of the social orientations varies from obedience
and punishment, and ends up with principled conscience. If
something is missed along the way principled conscience is
never achieved and therefore the adult person does not understand
what “social mutuality and a genuine interest in the
welfare of others” means [7]. Kohlberg indicates that
the only way out of the situation of “immaturity”
is to face the required social dilemmas at each of the six
stages.
All these theories mentioned above require socialization and
without it no morality can be achieved by any means. No morality
is a guarantee of the future anti-social criminal behaviour.
The psychological theories in criminology in he modern times
are the major hope to cope with the ever-lasting problem of
crime prevention. Psychology has given these theories and
supported them various widely known experiments. This makes
the contribution of the psychological theories to the criminology
as a discipline immense and irreplaceable. These psychological
theories give an opportunity for the future adults spend their
lives decently and definitely not in jail.
6. Conclusion
Contemporary theories are a combination of both biological
and social factors, as one cannot go without the other. Every
individual socializes and the social factor should be given
the proper attention it deserves. The best theory or approach
towards the possible explanation of the causes of crime and
the personality of the criminals lies in the union of the
most well-grounded parts of each of the theories. It is evident
from our essay that both of the groups of theories have made
a significant contribution into the development of the criminology
as a discipline, because the biological theories represent
the foundation for all the following theories which nowadays
create the basics of the modern criminology. It cannot under
any condition be said that one or another theory is more or
less important because they have been developed separately
all the time; and this was the major problem of criminology.
At the present moment criminology has gathered aspects from
different theories in order to analyze, explain, predict and
prevent deviant conduct. Criminology has come to the point
where the contribution of both of the groups of theories is
vital due to the fact that they all work for one purpose –
to eliminate crime in the society and create a better world
for the future generations. It goes without saying that the
scientifically significance of the biological theories has
lost credit; nevertheless these theories should not be forgotten.
If people do not know their pas they will not ever know heir
future. The same works for the theories. Only owing to their
contribution into his science, criminology has become as professional
as it has never been before.
Bibliography:
1. Bandura, A. “Social Learning Theory”/General
Learning Press/1977.
2. Gina Lombroso-Ferrero (1911) Criminal Man, According to
the Classification of Cesare Lombroso/ Putnam/1972.
3. Miller, N. & Dollard, J. “Social Learning and
Imitation/ Yale University Press/1941.
4. Ronald L. Akers & Christine S. Sellers “Criminological
Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application”/Universiy
of Florids Press/2004.
5. http://www.umsl.edu/~rkeel/200/biotheor.html
Biological and Psychological Theories of Deviance
6. http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/kohlberg.html
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
7. Bandura, A. “Principles of behavior modification”/
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston/1969.
8. Flavell, J. H. “The developmental psychology of
Jean Piaget”/ Van Nostrand Reinhold/ 1963.
9. Markle, S. ”Good Frames and Bad”/Wiley/1969.
10. Skinner, B.F.” Beyond freedom and dignity”
/Knopf/1971.
11. Gallagher, J.M. & Reid, D.K.”The learning theory
of Piaget and Inhelder”/ Brooks& Cole/1981.
12. Vold, G. B. & Bernard, T. J. “Theoretical Criminology”/
Oxford/1986.
13. Gottfredson, M. & Hirschi, T. “A general theory
of crime” /Stanford University Press/1990.
|
|
