1. Introduction
2. Peculiarities of criminology
3. Biological theories in criminology
4. Psychological theories in criminology
5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
Criminology is not an old science; nevertheless it is possible to say that the
steps of its creation started long before its official definition as a science.
The necessity of this science is especially high nowadays when, the level of
crime has risen immensely in every corner of the planet. The attempt to explain
the human behavior has already become a priority for many scientists all over
the world. The rich socio-historical experience of the humanity in the past
gives an additional opportunity for adequate understanding of modern criminology
and the problems solved by the given branch of knowledge. Criminology had several
factors that especially influenced its development. These factors provide a
lot of back up information for a better understanding of criminology and its
possibilities.
2. Peculiarities of criminology
Criminology is a socially-legal interdisciplinary science and an integral part
of legislation. As it has been already mentioned, the beginning of the existence
of criminology as a separate science started in the middle of the XIX century.
Its start is strongly associated with the works of a famous criminologist Cesar
Lombroso. Criminology as a science has a list of primary problems that it is
to solve. The first one to mention is the analytical problem which lies in the
detailed researched of the phenomenon of criminality, its general condition
and the categorization of all the existing criminal manifestations. So therefore
criminology provides a correct “picture” of the present criminal
situation in any given geographical location. Other problems include the prognosis
of the potential criminal situation, the prevention of criminality and the determination
of the causes and the consequences of crime. One of the most important criminological
issues of the new era is the designation of the crime determinants. So basically
criminology has four main priorities to study: criminality, the personality
of criminals, the reasons and the conditions under which criminality takes place
and the possible methods of prevention. There have been many attempts to understand
the true causes of crime. These attempts are especially revealed through the
existing theories in criminology. Nevertheless, the biological and the psychological
theories are the ones most spread and their contradiction constantly results
in numerous arguments between the supporters of both of the theories. In order
to make any concrete conclusions on any of these theories it is necessary to
analyze them and their contribution in criminology.
3. Biological theories in criminology
The biological theories primarily study the physical constitution and endocrinology.
They are a bright example of the theories that has not really got any practical
support. The misunderstanding of these theories has caused a stereotype that
if a person is a criminal then he was born as a criminal and any steps taken
in order to change or to influence them are useless. Biological theories are
only a part and one the interpretation of criminality but not the only. In the
present time there is no assertive evidence of the fact, that the physical constitution
and other biological factors cause criminality.
Nevertheless, these theories have a right to exist and there was a lot of important
information that was used in terms of the development of criminology as a science.
The most vivid example of the biological determinism is the theory of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso based his theory on the assumption that criminals have certain
physiognomic features or abnormalities. Lombroso wanted to be able to detect
future criminals in order to isolate them from the society. This gave criminology
a strong push to create new methods of dealing with criminals and prevent crimes.
Lombroso implied that prisoners had common facial characteristics. If to exaggerate
criminals in Lombroso’s theory can be identified through the shape of
their skulls, asymmetry of the face and head, large cheekbones, ears and lips,
long arms and a twisted nose. Lombroso’s theory is the oldest one and
it can without a doubt be called the main background data for the whole process
of the development of criminology. Lombroso stated that men are more inclined
to commit crimes due to the conservatism and the narrow-mindedness of their
interests. According to Lombroso women have less social contacts and this is
what predetermines their conservatism. This theory of female deviance seems
to be very discriminating and not a present-day issue. The evaluation of a person
as a “born criminal” basing on his facial features is at least not
ethical and rather primitive. Lombroso considered this “born criminals”
to be the “atavisms” of the society.
All the biological theories are based on the notion that biological markers
foreordain criminal behavior. The core of all these theories is that genetic
factors or any abnormalities which are inherited or acquired throughout the
life, predispose individuals to the criminal behavior. Lombroso’s theory
gave life to probably almost every single biological theory that appeared afterward.
Among the biological theories the XYY syndrome occupies a special place, as
it analyzes why males are more often subjects to become criminals due to the
presence if an extra Y chromosome. As this syndrome is in the first place associated
with the low IQ-level of such males which seems to be a much better explanation.
IQ shortage causes the inability to adjust in the contemporary social world
that requires constant activity and flexibility. People facing these difficulties
are left with no other choice that to turn to criminality. It all starts with
low performance at school which results in the awareness of the “irretrievable
dissimilitude” from others which later on results in deviance. Also such
diseases as Organic Brain Syndrome, ADD or hormonal changes according to the
biological theories play a very important role in the inclination to any criminal
activities.
Another famous biological theory is the theory of William Sheldon. He based
his research and inferences on Kretschmer's constitutional personality. For
instance, Sheldon pointed out three main body types which are to explain the
potential bent to criminal activity: endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. Endomorph
is a type hat is fat and therefore is primarily concerned with consumption.
Mesomorph is defined through skinny intelligent introverts and ectomorph characterizes
large dynamic people. Sheldon claimed that disproportionately mesomorphic people
are more often subjects to criminal behavior than any other body type. In spite
of the variety of biological theories nowadays it is clear that there is no
possibility to consider that any person can be a “born criminal”,
because it is very hard to underestimate the social factors and all the psychological
issues connected with them. Lombroso’s theory was a good start for criminology
but this point of view needed to transform into something new and not one-sided.
4. Psychological theories in criminology
The main idea of the psychological theories is that potential criminal behavior
is the result of stable psychological trait of a person. These personality characteristics
are he ones to push people towards committing crimes and demonstrating deviant
behavior. The psychological theories emphasize the meaning of extraversion,
neuroticism, psychotisism and may others of the conduct of a man. According
to the psychological theories the disposition to crime is the result of inadequate
socialization. They consider the social factor to be one of the most important
ones in terms of inclination to deviance.
Among the numerous psychological theories it is important to point out Sigmund
Freud’s and Erik Erikson’s psychodynamic theories, Skinner’s
operant conditioning, Albert Bandura’s social-learning theory and the
theory of moral development based on Kohlberg’s and Piaget’s stages
of development.
Freud touched the problem of possible personality imbalance based on the functioning
of Id, Ego and Superego resulting in the repression which can later proceed
into criminal behavior. Erikson made an emphasis on the child development. He
was particularly solicitous about the problem of identity diffusion which resulted
in excessively self-conscious people who are overly concerned with sexuality.
Erikson pointed out the problem of unfulfilled expectations which form a negative
identity. In its turn this negative identity when possessed by a person make
him want to show it out and he most common way to do it is to rebel against
everything. The rebel against social norms is a bright example of how negative
identity can result in criminal behavior. This theory performs a perfect base
of how deviance can be stopped at early age.
The next major theory to mention is Skinner’s operant conditioning theory
which is founded on the standard scheme of stimulus > reaction. According
to Skinner the reward-based actions can form the desired behavior of a person
and therefore also provide important information in terms of the prevention
of criminality.
Bandura in his psychological social learning or also known as the social learning
theory states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious…if people
had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to
do… from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed,
and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action”
[Bandura, 22]. Bandura claimed that modeling plays the most important role in
the behavior formation.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is based on the thoughts revealed
in the works of Jean Piaget. According to Kohlberg every individual passed six
stages throughout his development as a personality. Each of the stages belongs
to a definite level, so Kohlberg marked out three levels: pre-conventional level,
conventional level and the post-conventional level. Each of the three levels
has is own social orientation. The diapason of the social orientations varies
from obedience and punishment, and ends up with principled conscience. If something
is missed along the way principled conscience is never achieved and therefore
the adult person does not understand what “social mutuality and a genuine
interest in the welfare of others” means [7]. Kohlberg indicates that
the only way out of the situation of “immaturity” is to face the
required social dilemmas at each of the six stages.
All these theories mentioned above require socialization and without it no morality
can be achieved by any means. No morality is a guarantee of the future anti-social
criminal behaviour. The psychological theories in criminology in he modern times
are the major hope to cope with the ever-lasting problem of crime prevention.
Psychology has given these theories and supported them various widely known
experiments. This makes the contribution of the psychological theories to the
criminology as a discipline immense and irreplaceable. These psychological theories
give an opportunity for the future adults spend their lives decently and definitely
not in jail.
6. Conclusion
Contemporary theories are a combination of both biological and social factors,
as one cannot go without the other. Every individual socializes and the social
factor should be given the proper attention it deserves. The best theory or
approach towards the possible explanation of the causes of crime and the personality
of the criminals lies in the union of the most well-grounded parts of each of
the theories. It is evident from our essay that both of the groups of theories
have made a significant contribution into the development of the criminology
as a discipline, because the biological theories represent the foundation for
all the following theories which nowadays create the basics of the modern criminology.
It cannot under any condition be said that one or another theory is more or
less important because they have been developed separately all the time; and
this was the major problem of criminology.
At the present moment criminology has gathered aspects from different theories
in order to analyze, explain, predict and prevent deviant conduct. Criminology
has come to the point where the contribution of both of the groups of theories
is vital due to the fact that they all work for one purpose – to eliminate
crime in the society and create a better world for the future generations. It
goes without saying that the scientifically significance of the biological theories
has lost credit; nevertheless these theories should not be forgotten. If people
do not know their pas they will not ever know heir future. The same works for
the theories. Only owing to their contribution into his science, criminology
has become as professional as it has never been before.
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